Religion's Reflection in Architecture

How have architectural styles reflected the philosophies, religions, and politics of various cultures throughout history?

I would like to focus my discussion on religion's reflection in architecture and hope it will not be too lengthy.

Religion forms the foundation of cultural identity and has decisively shaped world civilizations based on differing, but not exclusive, views of ultimate value: mercy and benevolence in Buddhism, morality and ethics in Confucianism, respect in Shintoism, devotion and mystical unity of divine Self in Hinduism, obedience and perseverance in Judaism, love for the Creator and one's fellowman in Christianity, and submission to the will of Allah in Islam.

Shrine-like buildings found at Catal Huyuk in Anatolia (now modern Turkey) date as far back as 9000 B.C.E. Within two thousand years, similar sanctuaries would be established in Jericho and elsewhere in the Near East.

Hindu architecture testifies to the intense spirituality of the Indian subcontinent. Designed to represent a cosmic mountain, the Hindu temple serves as the earthly residence of the cosmic deities. Temple architecture embodies the faith's complex cosmology, with sanctuary walls accommodating statues, sacred emblems, and myths of the Hindu pantheon. Unlike the Christian churches and Jewish temples that house believers in collective worship, Hindu temples ordinarily do not contain large internal spaces. They are tabernacles preceded by halls used for rituals, music, and dance. Because Hindu architectural styles are expressions of faith, adopting new forms would be a denial of the entire past.

The supreme sacred monument of Buddhism is the stupa, whose basic form is a solid dome crowned by a parasol. Stupas were initially burial mounds for relics. The stupa form, with its vertical axis representing the axis mundi, or world axis, has cosmic implications. The parasol is one of the kingly symbols associated with the Buddha, who had renounced his former life as a prince. The stupa thus implies that the ruler upholds the cosmic law.

Japan's Shinto shrines were built to welcome the gods when they descended to the Earth. Some were temporary buildings, used only once, during a god's sojourn. Shinto shrines adorn the landscape rather than host believers, and they reflect the worship of spirits of the environment who determine the success of the harvest.

In ancient China, shrines were used for sacrifices to ancestors and famous historical personages, as well as to the gods. Usually there were two groups of buildings, one for the worship of heaven and the other for prayers for good harvest. The Imperial Vault of Heaven housed a sacred tablet. This shrine had three circular tiers. Heaven was said to be circular and the earth square. Thus, square courtyards were used to locate heaven on earth, while high supporting platforms, placed behind comparatively low surrounding walls, gave the impression that the buildings were close to the sky.

In the Roman world, the acceptance of Christianity by Emperor Constantine resulted in an ambitious program of ecclesiastical and monastic building. As Christianity spread across Europe, medieval Christendom witnessed the construction of enormous cathedrals, often taking generations to complete, which infused Christian belief in the majesty of the Creator within vast arched spaces, and reverence for the saints within intricate statuary and stained glass. In architecture as in literature, the dominant themes were feudal loyalty and Christian faith, both closely related to the mystic ideal of the knights dedicated to the service of Christ.

With the rise of Islam in the seventh century C.E., new styles