30 Years Wars

The Thirty Years War, 1618-1648

A.) The Situation leading to the War

Emperor Charles V. had striven hard to reconcile the German Protestant community and the Roman Curia; the unwillingness of both the Council of Trent and the German Protestants to make major concessions had lead to a confrontation of both camps; the Schmalkaldic War, as an attempt to pressure the Protestant camp into taking a more conciliatory attitude, was of only temporary success and was counteracted by Duke-Elector Maurice's Expedition against Innsbruck in 1552, resulting in the Religious Peace of Augsburg, regarded by Germany's protestant princes as a guarantee of their territorial creed, by the Emperor as a document forced upon him under humiliating conditions.

Neither the Council of Trent nor the Papal Curia were willing to accept the Religious Peace of Augsburg; Counterreformation agitation tried to undermine it. The Cologne Stift Feud of 1583 provided an opportunity; Emperor Rudolf II. sided with counter-bishop Ernst of Bavaria. Emperor Rudolf II. (1575-1612) clearly supported the Counterreformation; Germany's protestants, in 1583 reluctant to support Cologne Archbishop Truchsess von Waldburg, were concerned. The case of the free Imperial city of DonauwÐ"¶rth, which was occupied by Bavarian troops in 1607 (and the Counterreformation enforced) without the Emperor taking action, caused the protestant princes to form the PROTESTANT UNION (1608). In 1609 the CATHOLIC LEAGUE was formed. Emperor Rudolf, as King of Bohemia, cancelled the religious toleration protestants enjoyed in Bohemia (1609). Thus the stage was prepared for a showdown.

B.) The Spark that ignited the War

In 1618 the Bohemian Estates deposed Emperor Matthias (as King of Bohemia) in the Defenestration of Prague. They went on to establish a Bohemian nobles' republic following the model of Poland-Lithuania and elected Frederick Count Palatinate King of Bohemia. However, Bohemia held one of the seven electorates within the Holy Roman Empire; to accept the loss of Bohemia, for the House of Habsburg, would also jeopardize her hold on the Imperial crown (for among the 7 electors, three were protestant princes - Brandenburg, Saxony, Palatinate; Bohemia would be the fourth).

C.1) The War in 1618-1625

Emperor Matthias died in 1619, and, despite a protestant majority in the council of electors, Ferdinand of Habsburg was elected his successor. That year, Bethlen Gabor, Ban (duke) of Transylvania, took up arms against the Emperor, in the cause of Hungary's protestants. Emperor Ferdinand, lacking the funds to raise a force against Bohemia, borrowed from Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, giving him Upper Austria as a pawn; where the Counterreformation now was implemented forcefully. A Bavarian-Imperial army under Johan Tzerclaes Tilly then defeated the Bohemians in the Battle of the White Mountain 1620 and restored Bohemia to Habsburg rule; here, also, the Counterreformation was introduced, as in the Upper Palatinate, territory of the Winter King (Frederick Count Palatinate) adjacent to both Bohemia and Bavaria. The Imperial side now offered a peace treaty an the basis of the status quo; it was not accepted by Frederick Count Palatinate. In turn, Emperor Ferdinand cancelled the electoral vote the Golden Bull had provided to the Count Palatine, and awarded it to Duke Maximilian of Bavaria and his successors.

In the Low Countries, the 12 Years Truce expired in 1621, and hostilities resumed, Spain planning another offensive. Duke Christian of Braunschweig (Brunswick) led a force of 10,000 men into the Rhineland (1621), taking on smaller Catholic territories, then to the Princebishopric of Paderborn (1622), was defeated in the Battle of Hoechst 1622, then on into Low Countries, where he defeated a Spanish force under Cordova at Fleury (1622). The Count Palatinate was occupied by Tilly (1622). Another protestant force lead by the Count of Mansfeld arrived in the Low Countries, breaking the Spanish siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, then moving into the Stift MÐ"јnster and on to East Frisia (1623). In the Battle of Stadtlohn (Aug. 1623), a Bavarian army under Tilly defeated Christian of Braunschweig. Christian disbanded his force and went to England; soon after, Count Mansfeld also arrived there.

Duke-Elector Johann Georg of Saxony was formally granted Upper and Lower Lusatia, as a reward for his cooperation in the action against Bohemia (1623). Albrecht Eusebius von Wallenstein raised an army, reducing the Emperor's dependence on Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. The Dutch Republic, England and France, where Cardinal Richelieu became prime minister in 1624, subsidized the protestant side. In the Lower Palatinate, the Counterreformation was implemented. In England, Mansfeld recruited a new force of 15,000 men and in 1625 landed his force to Zeeland (Dutch Republic). However, King James I. wanted the subsidies exclusively used for the recovery of the Lower Palatinate.

C.2.) The Danish Phase, 1625-1629

Germany's Protestant Union invited both Kings Christian IV. of Denmark and Gustavus II. Adolphus of Sweden to enter the war; Christian IV. accepted and was given command (and considerable subsidies). War was resolved upon in May 1625, in April 1626 Mansfeld was defeated in the Battle of Dessau, in August 1626 Christian's Danish Army in the Battle of Lutter am Barenberge. Mansfeld, in an attempt to link up with a force lead by Transylvanian Ban Bethlen Gabor, moved to Silesia, pursued by Wallenstein's force. Without another major encounter, Bethlen Gabor signed peace 1626 (Treaty of Pressburg, modern Bratislava). In 1627, Tilly and Wallenstein moved north, pushing the Danish force back and occupying protestant territories allied to Christian - Mecklenburg, Holstein, even Jutland. Christian withdrew his army to the Danish islands. In 1629 Denmark signed the humiliating Peace of LÐ"јbeck. Emperor Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, ordering the restitution of (Catholic) church property secularized since 1555.

Since 1627, the Hanseatic city of Stralsund withstood the siege by Wallenstein's force (Wallenstein had himself made Duke of nearby Mecklenburg). the Hanseatic cities outside of Pomerania, hitherto taking a neutral stand, felt threatened by Wallenstein's hold on Mecklenburg and supported the besieged city. The Swedes occupied the island of RÐ"јgen.

C.3.) The Swedish Phase, 1630-1635

Gustavus II. Adolphus signed the Peace of Altmark (1629), terminating the Swedish-Polish War, thus freeing his forces