Hooliganism

The term "hooliganism" cannot be easily defined. Often the media portrays hooligans to be involved in severely violent and unruly criminal actions. It represents so much more than just barbaric behavior. Hooliganism has evolved from being pure hatred and violence into becoming pride-earning competition. For some, it is a way to take a break from an average mundane working-life, but for others, it is a way of life.

Hooliganism wasn't recognized as a serious problem until it received media coverage in the late 1960's. There was a power struggle between the younger, working class (Teddy Boys) and older generations and upper-classes. The young working class experienced an increase in wealth leading to a shift in power among classes. Watching football became a common pastime for young working class men. The popularity of football led to a concentration on the individual as well as group identities. Territorial violence began to take center-stage over the actual football games that were initially the focal point. Rivalries became stronger and brawls began to move away from the stadiums. There was an emphasis on solidarity and hostility to outsiders among rebellious groups such as the skinheads. The skinheads were fanatical supporters of English soccer with controversial political views. Known for their violence, the skinheads would openly exert racism in football stadiums and defiantly run riot in most public places. Authorities started cracking down more on hooliganism because of the unwanted violence and discrimination by groups like the skinheads. To counteract this, super hooligans created 'firms' to increase organization and avoid being caught by the police. Firms still stand strong today, although increased policing has caused it to be more difficult. America has produced an abundance of violence based on sports though there is not much evidence depicting the same team-style rivalry located in other countries. Most of the violent occurrences were provoked by either a sizeable defeat or victory. The question is this: If it is still possible for modern hooliganism to exist in other parts of the world with similar advanced technology and sophisticated infrastructure, why wouldn't it be possible to exist in the United States?

The ubiquitous connections between sports and aggression cannot be denied, however the issue of sports being either the cure or the cause of aggression proves to be an open debate. Various sociologists argue that sports act as a moderator to control aggression in society. With this idea, comes the Freudian assumption that human beings have naturally aggressive behavior that must be released. Many sociologists maintain that sports offer a structured "outlet" for aggressive behavior that people must express. On the contrary, many believe that sports promote aggression in society. According to Dunning, athletes and/or spectators actively concerned over the outcome of a certain sporting event view sports as a means of proving something to themselves or to others. Under certain conditions, frustration can become a byproduct of these intense desires, which may lead to anger and then possible aggression. Do sports lead directly to criminal activity by avid fans, or are sports merely a way for supporters to release their bottled up aggression in an organized catharsis?

Violence will be tied to sports no matter in what nation or continent one resides. There are countless acts of violence that have occurred in the United States as a consequence of sporting events. From New York Ranger fans lighting opposing teams' jerseys on fire to Cleveland Browns fans assaulting officials by throwing beer bottles at them after they made a bad judgment. So what makes these incidents differ from hooliganism? After all, the frustration turned into anger was created originally because of the desire for one's sports team to be victorious. Organization and structure can be the only distinction. Different laws, regulations and policing could be possible reasons for hooliganism's inability, thus far, to exist in America.

In order to understand the potential for football-style hooliganism to be able to infiltrate American culture, the probable causes of hooliganism must first be identified. Social class stratification is one possible source of hooliganism. In the 1950's there was an attempt by football authorities to appeal to a middle-class audience as opposed to the traditionally working-class audience in the past. This movement was titled "bourgeoisification" by Ian Taylor. He describes hooliganism as a 'resistance movement' by a disgruntled working-class in retaliation to this 'bourgeoisification.' In England, this 'bourgeoisification' may have been a driving force for hooliganism in the beginning, but contemporary statistics contradict this claim for current motivations among hooliganism in England. In the U.S., ticket prices seem to be increasing steadily in most venues of various leagues throughout the nation. Many low-income fans that have supported their teams when performance and ticket sales were minimal run the risk of not being able to afford future tickets if the team is to perform well. Hooliganism might also be a way for social class rebellion among United States citizens. Taylor asserts that the source for hooliganism today is based upon a sort of English masculinity and brutishness, rather than class distinctions as the cause. A principal aspect causing hooliganism is held by the desire to earn prestige, with one's own group and with rival groups. For most, this simply means becoming victorious within the unwritten parameters of battle. America is an extremely individualistic society where competition is omnipresent. Another way for individuals to earn the respect of their peers, while feeling the camaraderie that accompanies being part of a group should be appealing to Americans.

Many theorists on the subject of hooliganism argue that the media acts as a catalyst in hooligan acts. The media provides a way for the public to understand the underground phenomenon. Headlines often use violent imagery, utilizing war metaphors to impact the dedicated readers. Newspapers frequently carry warnings and cautions about potential hooligan occurrences at a certain sporting event. This often acts as a sort of self-fulfilling prophecy. The media adds gas to the fire in encouraging hooligans to act out more than they usually would. One of the main points of these confrontations is to establish a good reputation. There was even the publishing of league tables of hooligan notoriety (Daily Mirror 1974). The yearning for pride and status associated with the fame of being recognized in a newspaper could only induce more actions. If the media has this significant of an impact on, for example England, how much damage could be