How Is the Form and Level of Political Particpation in Liberal Democracies Changing and What Are the Political Consequences?

Political participation involves 'activity by individuals formally intended to influence who governs or the decisions taken by those who do so.' (Hague & Harrop 2004) This can include voting, writing to representatives, joining pressure groups or political parties, campaigning in small groups and many other forms. Collective action especially is an important feature of participation in a representative democracy, activities such as signing petitions, marches, rallies and lobbies of representatives. Participation in liberal democracies expands on simply voting in elections, in order to measure participation, this essay will account for the drastic changes in levels of participation and the mediums through which they are conducted in recent decades (Bentley et al 1999). Additionally it is important to examine the social consequences this change has to the opportunity of different groups to participate and on the level at which they can do so. Therefore, a key theme to this essay will be to gain understanding on the extent of participation in contemporary liberal democracies, and for what reasons does it appear to be falling.

Firstly, it is important to examine the change in participation from involvement in social groupings, to issue based participation with no (or very little) socially based compilations. Cultural values are now the main base for conflict, constituting the rise of a postmaterial society in most advanced liberal democratic nations (Melucci 1985). This reflects a greater level of individualism in society and has resulted in increasing numbers of ad hoc temporary alliances (Melucci 1985). Modern society does not have a single central conflict but specific problems and therefore one class actor is transformed into several protest groups. (Eder 1985) The development of postmaterialism has resulted in a cultural surplus and people having needs other than subsistence due to the fact that they are economically more affluent, (Melucci 1985) therefore this is the cause of new collective protest. Previous forms of action were based around a community, the modern form is institutional. (Eder 1985) This modernisation is reflected in the less ideological basis of groups, Galting suggests "a federation of issue movements that work out the level of integration they find justifiable, supporting each other on many things but not on all." (Offe 1985) It is clear that action outside the system is much more necessary and effective today due to the fact that institutions hold central power and majority have little input.

In order to understand contemporary participation it is also important to assess the mediums through which it is conducted. A development towards New Social Movements has occurred, 'the politics of New Social Movements ... seeks to politicize the institutions of civil society.' (Offe 1985) This mode of participation has been described as 'New Politics', the New Social Movements are organisations that allow our modern lifestyles to accommodate participation. Additionally post materialism and 'new politics' has resulted in the issues on which New Social Movements are experts becoming more important, this is known as social structural determinism. Tilly suggests, New Social Movements involve associational rather than community based collective action, this is reflective of changes in society due to the fact that class is less relevant today.(Eder 1985) Raschke suggests the New Social Movements are very different and operate in a way which can not easily be categorised using traditional liberal political theory.(Offe 1985) . Collective protest by New Social Movements has become socially accepted and is now considered to be rational. (Eder 1985) Political pressure groups also play an important role by offering a means of participation and collective action to lobby government. New Social Movements are used not used as an alternative to the conventional political process but in addition to it. (Offe 1985)

The composition of those typically involved in participation, involves the 'new middle class' or petit bourgeoisie who are considered to dominate New Social Movements (Offe 1985), therefore the characteristics of people involved include 'high levels of education, economic affluence and employment in the service sector rather than manual labour.' (Offe 1985) They hold greater competence to make judgements about current affairs and greater ability to think independently and so to question society as it is. This group can also be categorised as the new petit-bourgeoise, defined as welfare state workers, this group is more class conscious and post materialist values fit their lifestyle perfectly. Due to the fact that they are not attempting radical reform, simply to influence government. (Eder 1985). A second group considered to have high levels of participation especially in New Social Movements is the decommodified section of society, this involves people who are not socially defined by the labour market and therefore have more free time resulting in higher participation levels. (Offe 1985) As the number of decommodified people increases so will the new middle class as it is they who work in the public sector to provide services for the decommodified therefore, as both continue to increase there will be a continued growth in New Social Movements. The other main group involved in the rise in New Social Movements are the self employed, however, this sector is declining. Two of the three bases supporting the rise of New Politics is growing, suggesting that their influence on participation will be retained for the significant future. (Offe 1985)

It is clear that increased participation is not something experienced by all, especially in contemporary society, Putnam relates this to social capital which involves, 'features of social life that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives.'(Putnam 1995) Therefore, social capital and political participation are strongly related as social capital involves communal relations with one another, 'A grass roots political movement ... is a social capital intensive form of political participation.' (Putnam 1995) Social capital theory suggests that, 'the more we connect with other people, the more we trust them and vice versa ... trust and civic engagement are strongly correlated.' (Putnam 1995) Putnam suggested that active and collective forms of participation have decreased, group membership is decreasing in political and non-political groups.(Putnam 1995) Evidence suggests that Americans are now less engaged in their communities, Putman's work attempted to explain the erosion of social capital in America. His research can relate to my work in political participation by the correlation of reasons for declining