Imperialism in the Middle East

http://college.hmco.com/history/west/mckay/western_society/7e/students/outlines/ch26.html

Western penetration of Egypt

Muhammad Ali built a modern state in Turkish held Egypt that attracted European traders.

He drafted the peasants, reformed the government, and improved communications.

The peasants lost out because the land was converted from self-sufficient farms to large, private landholdings to grow cash crops for export.

Ismail continued the modernization of Egypt, including the completion of the Suez Canal, but also drew the country deeply into debt.

To prevent Egypt from going bankrupt, Britain and France intervened politically.

Foreign financial control provoked a violent nationalistic reaction in Egypt that led to British occupation of the country until 1956.

Natural Resources

Beginning in the 1800s, imperialism was also practiced in the Middle East. The prime attraction for most European nations was the presence of vast oil fields. The machinery produced as a result of the Industrial Revolution required oil to keep numerous moving parts lubricated. As the internal combustion engine became more popular around 1900, oil was also needed as a fuel.

Strategic Location

Strategy also played a major role in the European conquest of the Middle East through imperialism. Two areas that Europe paid particular attention to were the Suez Canal and Palestine.

Suez Canal

The French originally set out to build the Suez Canal in 1859. However, Britain soon became jealous because of the potential impact the shortcut between the Mediterranean and Red Seas could have on trade with its Indian colony. In 1875, the British wrested financial control of the Suez Canal away from the French, and eventually made all of Egypt a protectorate in 1882.

Palestine

After WWI, the newly formed League of Nations gave Great Britain a mandate over Palestine. Palestine's location on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea seemed like a great prize to the British, but problems soon erupted. It became clear that both Arabs and Jews claimed the region as a homeland.

Ambiguous British foreign policy heightened tensions between the two groups as each was given a conflicting promise . For their support in WWI, Britain promised Arabs independence. Later however, in the Balfour Declaration, Britain promised to establish a national homeland for the Jews.

After WWII, Palestine would be renamed Israel and given to Jews as a homeland to provide shelter from atrocities such as the Nazi Holocaust in Europe. Inevitably, fighting broke out between the two groups which still remains to be resolved today.

http://www.sta.cathedral.org/depts/history/cho/ch15e.html

US Imperialism in the 1890s

#80: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire in the 1850s

--Huge state, mostly Muslim. Some Jews, many Christians. Turks = ruling class. Muslims served in the army, non-Muslims paid taxes. People of different religions lived side-by-side, each governed by his own religion. Religious officials = all responsib le to Turkish government for their own people.

--Western Europeans enjoyed regime of "capitulations," or special rights earned in treaties with Western powers. Turkey could charge no more than an 8% tariff, Europeans = exempt from most taxes, and Europeans = guaranteed European courts of law.

--Thus, Ottoman Empire totally lacked sense of nationalism, national unity, sovereignty, uniform law, secular state. Empire had fallen behind greatly. Turkey = "sick man of Europe," and what would come of its long decline = the Eastern Question. By 18 50s, Empire = falling apart. But still, Empire = huge.

--Crimean War of 1854-56 opened new phase of Ottoman history. Turks tried to modernize and consolidate from 56-76. War showed Turkish military and political weaknesses, pointed especially to a need for organization. War proved superiority of French an d English systems.

Attempts at Reform and Revival: 1856-76

--Ottoman government issued a great reform edict in 1856. Main purpose = to create a national citizenship for all members of the empire: abolished civil authority of religious heirarchs, established equality before the law and eligibility for civil of fice w/out regard to religion. Tax reform, guarantee of security of property, abolition of torture, and prison reform. Promised to combat government corruption.

--For 20 years, Ottoman government tried seriously to make this work. Western and liberal ideas = free reign. Newspapers. A Turkish revival in literature: translations of Western master works, and large Ottoman histories. Railroads and foreign loans. But there was strong resistance to the change. And most Turkish officials = untrained, unqualified for the work at hand. Thus, movement mostly failed, and Ottoman govt repudiated 1/2 of its debt in 1874. New, more reforming minister deposed old sultan and set up Abdul Hamid II in 1876. Minister continued the reform at a new pitch. But Hamid promptly initiated a reaction.

Reaction after 1876

--Hamid ruled until 1909 as