In What Ways Are the Ideas of Socio-Biology Linked with Eugenics: What's Wrong with Trying to Engineer a Better Society Anyway?

Eugenics is concerned with the current direction of human evolution. Troy Duster (1990) in his book "Backdoor to Eugenics" defines eugenics as "the organic betterment of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity." The word Eugenics was first put to use in 1883 by Francis Galton in his "Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development". The word originates from the Greek word eugenes meaning "...good in stock, hereditarily endowed with noble qualities". The first edition of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics' entry for eugenics states that the meaning of the term Eugenics has differed over time: "...a science that investigates methods to ameliorate the genetic composition of the human race, a program to foster such betterment; a social movement; and in its perverted form, a pseudo-scientific retreat for bigots and racists" (Ludmerer 1978, p. 457). Highlighting its disintegration, Kelves says that by 1935 "...eugenics had become `hopelessly perverted' into a pseudoscientific facade for `advocates of race and class prejudice, defenders of vested interests of church and state, Fascists, Hitlerites, and reactionaries generally'" (Kevles 1985, p. 164). Eugenics has been practiced since ancient times; for example, in the 20th century Sweden had a eugenics program that lasted for 40 years (Broberg and Roll- Hansen, 1996). In fact, a total of 28 countries practiced eugenics in the 20th century, and one country, Germany, committed genocide. To explain the origins and ideas behind the practice of eugenics, I will draw on works from a fine selection of the first thinkers in the realms of eugenics, including Herbert Spencer, Stephen Jay Gould, Frances Galton and Charles Darwin. I would also like to ask exactly what is known about eugenics and socio-biology both now and throughout history. I will then question the ethicality of such practices. I will then explore some examples of eugenics being put to use around the world, such as the Holocaust and Nazi Germany. After delving into these various case studies, I will then attempt to unravel the answer to the question "What is wrong with trying to engineer a better society?"

As mentioned previously, the roots of eugenics can be traced back to Britain in the early 1880's when Sir Francis Galton generated the term from the Greek word for "well-born". Galton defined eugenics as the science of improving stock, whether human or animal (Galton, 1985). According to the American Eugenics Movement, today's study of eugenics has many similarities to studies done in the early 20th century. Back then, "Eugenics was, quite literally, an effort to breed better human beings - by encouraging the reproduction of people with "good" genes and discouraging those with "bad" genes." (www.eugenicsarchive.org) According to Merriam-Webster, the modern day definition of eugenics is, a science that deals with the improvement (as by control of human mating) of hereditary qualities of a race or breed.

The topic of eugenics is a controversial one. However, some argue that through research, it becomes evident that there are both positive and negative aspects of the movement. The American Eugenics Society was founded by Harry Crampton, Harry H. Laughlin, Madison Grant, and Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1926. The founders established that the main goal of the society was to distribute accurate scientific information on genetic health, draw attention to eugenics, and promote eugenic research. "Between 1907 and 1937 thirty-two states required sterilization of various citizens viewed as undesirable: the mentally ill or handicapped, those convicted of sexual, drug, or alcohol crimes and others viewed as degenerate" (Larson, 1991). "The Bell Curve" was published in late 1994. The research quoted in the book is taken mostly from members of the American Eugenics Society and other eugenics groups. "The book concludes that all men are not equal, and that the Declaration of Independence is badly worded." (Clements, 2002) The book was generally praised by conservatives and attacked by liberals.

In modern society, eugenics most recently became a hot topic when scientists announced the first successful cloning of Dolly the sheep. Dolly had the exact genetic make up as her mother. This revelation immediately got people talking about the possibility of cloning humans. "If cloning research were pursued, it has been estimated that human cloning could become a practical reality within the next one to two decades." (Pearson, 1998) One thing that many people disagree upon is whether or not eugenics and genetic cloning is ethically right or wrong. On one hand, it could eliminate children being born with life threatening diseases by forewarning parents of potential medical problems. "It is known that hemophilia, albinism, and certain structural abnormalities are inheritable. Family gene maps, called pedigrees, can help families with serious diseases avoid having children with the same diseases through genetic counseling, and, increasingly, prospective parents can be tested directly for the presence of undesired genes" (Prothero, 2004). Another possible use of genetics could be the production of healthy organs. For example, heart disease is one of the top causes of death in the United States. Scientists predict that they will someday be able to clone healthy heart cells and inject them into damaged areas of the heart to cure defects. There is also a possibility that doctors will be able to take healthy cells and tissue from a patient's body and use them to create organs. This would eliminate the need for organ donor waiting lists. People would no longer be facing early death because there is not a healthy heart or other organ available to them.

At the same time, some people question if it is morally right to, in terms, "play god". Some go as far as calling eugenics "scientific racism". They compare the science of eugenics to the time of the Nazi's when selective breeding took place to generate desired characteristics (blonde hair and blue eyes) in offspring. "In the twentieth century, eugenics led to the introduction of policies such as sterilization, marriage laws, immigration restriction, and the institutional segregation of the mentally ill and mentally handicapped" (Rafter, 1997). The Germans present advocated "racial hygiene," which later became Nazi policy. According to historian Stefan Kuhl, German eugenicists enjoyed a special relationship with their counterparts from the United States. The beliefs of these groups contain elements that are still being brought up in discussions of cloning humans. They included trust that selective breeding and choice of genetic traits is