Literary Terms and Concepts

1. An allusion occurs when an author makes a reference to a time, place, or character from another literary work. In Sinclair Lewis' "The Hack Driver" Lewis makes many references and comparisons. Specifically, he makes two allusions. The first allusion is to Heaven's gate and St. Peter. Lewis (1996) says of Bill, "When he gets to Heaven's gate he'll call St. Peter 'Pete'" (P. 58). Lewis' second allusion is to the Amazon River while describing Lutkins' mother. His allusion is used to connote her size and strength while acting as a metaphor to compare the well built woman to a fierce raging body of water.

2. A connotation is an inferred meaning that can be negative or positive. However, the negative or positive aspect is not always referenced and is not necessary for a connotation to exist. In Lewis' "The Hack Driver" Lewis positively connotes individuals from rural (less populated) areas as friendly and welcoming to strangers (Lewis, 1997).

3. A dictionary definition is considered a denotation. Denotations are literal meanings. Many terms are used to describe the characters in the various short stories. For example, the word scoundrel is used to mean a wicked person. Denotations are very common in literary work.

4. Figurative Language is a colorful figure of speech that has many forms. Similes, metaphors, symbols, hyperboles, and personifications are all considered figurative language.

5. A simile is a comparison used in literary work using the terms "like" or "as". Similes are effective when they compare two unassociated objects. In Marge Piercy's "To Be of Use" a simile is used to compare a hard worker's strength and dedication to getting the job done to that of a water buffalo pulling a load (Piercy, 1996). Piercy(1996) says, "I love people who harness themselves, an ox to a heavy cart, who pull like water buffalo, with massive patience, who strain in the mud and muck to move things forward, who do what has to be done, again and again" (P. 249). In Boe's "Factory Work", she uses a simile to compare the way one exhales to the way one's personal fears escape them each day. She says, "...and you begin to see your breath rise out of you like your own ghost each morning you come here" (Boe, 1996).

6. A metaphor is another type of comparison frequently used in literary work . The metaphor compares unassociated objects without the use of the words "like" or "as". In Lewis' "The Hack Driver" a comparison is made between the main character and an army with reserves. Lewis (1996) writes, " I loved him for it. By myself I might never have found Lutkins. Now, I was an army with reserves" (P. 60). The metaphor is used to represent his feeling of strength and purpose.

7. A symbol is a reference that has a literal meaning but can also have several other meanings below the surface. A symbol can also represent an idea or convey an ideal. In Boe's (1996) "Factory Work", the ghost can be symbolic of anything that haunts a person or it can represent the falsehood that a person embraces. The ghost can also represent a person's soul.

8. A hyperbole is a dramatic exaggeration. Lewis (1996) writes in the "The Hack Driver", "She's somewheres about nine feet tall and four feet thick and quick's a cat..."