Madagascar

The written history of Madagascar began in the [[7th century]], when [[Arab]]s established trading posts along the northwest coast. European contact began in the [[1500]]s, when [[Portugal|Portuguese]] sea captain [[Diego Dias]] sighted the island after his ship became separated from a fleet going to [[India]]. In the late 17th century, the [[France|French]] established trading posts along the east coast. From about [[1774]] to [[1824]], it was a favorite haunt for [[pirate]]s, including [[United States|American]]s, one of whom brought [[Malagasy]] rice to [[South Carolina]].

Beginning in the 1790s, [[Merina]] rulers succeeded in establishing [[hegemony]] over the major part of the island, including the coast. In [[1817]], the Merina ruler and the [[United Kingdom|British]] governor of [[Mauritius]] concluded a [[treaty]] abolishing the [[slave trade]], which had been important in Madagascar's economy. In return, the island received British military and financial assistance. British influence remained strong for several decades, during which the Merina court was converted to [[Presbyterianism]], [[Congregationalism]], and [[Anglicanism]].

The British accepted the imposition of a French [[protectorate]] over Madagascar in [[1885]] in return for eventual control over [[Zanzibar]] (now part of [[Tanzania]]) and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area. Absolute French control over Madagascar was established by military force in [[1895]]-[[1896|96]], and the Merina monarchy was abolished. In December [[1904]], the Russian Baltic Fleet stopped at [[Diego Suarez]] for coal and provisions before sailing on to its doomed encounter with the Japanese Fleet in the [[Battle of Tsushima]]. Before leaving port the Russian sailors were required to put ashore the animals they had acquired, including [[Monkey|monkeys]], [[Red-tailed Boa|boa constrictors]] and one [[crocodile]].

[[Image:Karte Madagaskar MKL1888.png|thumb|left|An 1888 map of Madagascar]]

Malagasy troops fought in [[France]], [[Morocco]], and [[Syria]] during [[World War II]]. After France fell to the [[Germany|Germans]], the [[Vichy]] government administered Madagascar. British troops occupied the strategic island in [[1942]] to preclude its seizure by the [[Japan]]ese. The [[Free French]] received the island from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1943]].

In [[1947]], with French prestige at low ebb, a [[Madagascar revolt|nationalist uprising]] was suppressed after several months of bitter fighting. The French subsequently established reformed institutions in [[1956]] under the Loi Cadre ([[Overseas Reform Act]]), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. The [[Malagasy Republic]] was proclaimed on [[October 14]], [[1958]], as an [[Autonomy|autonomous]] state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a [[constitution]] in [[1959]] and full [[independence]] on [[June 26]], [[1960]].

==Politics==

''Main article: [[Politics of Madagascar]]''

Madagascar's first President, [[Philibert Tsiranana]], was elected when his [[Social Democratic Party (Madagascar)|Social Democratic Party]] gained power at independence in [[1960]] and was reelected without opposition in [[March]] [[1972]]. However, he resigned only 2 months later in response to massive [[antigovernment demonstration]]s. The unrest continued, and Tsiranana's successor, Gen. [[Gabriel Ramanantsoa]], resigned on [[February 5]], [[1975]], handing over executive power to Lt. Col. [[Richard Ratsimandrava]], who was assassinated 6 days later. A provisional military directorate then ruled until a new government was formed in [[June]] [[1975]], under [[Didier Ratsiraka]].

During the 16 subsequent years of President Ratsiraka's rule, Madagascar continued under a government committed to revolutionary [[socialism]] based on the 1975 Constitution establishing a highly [[Centralization|centralized]] state. During this period a strategy of [[nationalization]] of private enterprises, centralization of the economy and "Malgasization" of the education system crippled the economy, leaving traces even today of a highly centralized economic system and a high level of [[illiteracy]]. National elections in [[1982]] and [[1989]] returned Ratsiraka for a second and third 7-year presidential term. For much of this period, only limited and restrained political opposition was tolerated, with no direct criticism of the president permitted in the press.

With an easing of restrictions on political expression, beginning in the late 1980s, the Ratsiraka regime came under increasing pressure to make fundamental changes. In response to a deteriorating economy, Ratsiraka relaxed socialist economic policies and instituted some [[classical liberalism|liberal]], private-sector reforms. These, along with political reforms like the elimination of [[press censorship]] in [[1989]] and the formation of more political parties in 1990, were insufficient to placate a growing opposition movement known as [[Hery Velona]] ("Active Forces"). A number of already existing political parties and their leaders, among them [[Albert Zafy]] and [[Rakotoniaina Manandafy]], anchored this movement which was especially strong in [[Antananarivo]] and the surrounding high plateau.

In response to largely peaceful mass demonstrations and crippling general strikes, Ratsiraka replaced his prime minister in [[August]] [[1991]] but suffered an irreparable setback soon thereafter when his troops fired on peaceful demonstrators marching on [[Iavoloha]], the suburban presidential palace, killing more than 30.

In an increasingly weakened position, Ratsiraka acceded to negotiations on the formation of a [[transitional government]]. The resulting "[[Panorama Convention]]" of [[October 31]], [[1991]], stripped Ratsiraka of nearly all of his powers, created interim institutions, and set an 18-month timetable for completing a transition to a new form of constitutional government. The [[Constitutional Court|High Constitutional Court]] was retained as the ultimate judicial arbiter of the process.

In [[March]] [[1992]], a widely representative [[National Forum]] organized by the [[FFKM]] (Malagasy Christian Council of Churches) drafted a new Constitution. Troops guarding the proceedings clashed with pro-Ratsiraka "[[Federalist|federalists]]" who tried to disrupt the forum in protest of draft constitutional provisions preventing the incumbent president from running again. The text of the new Constitution was put to a nationwide referendum in [[August]] [[1992]] and approved by a wide margin, despite