Political Systems

The different political systems which Machiavelli and Rousseau heralded contrasted greatly. Reasons for each of their doctrines were completely different, therefore the style of the institutions vary considerably. However it could be argued that the way of life for an ordinary citizen may not necessarily be as different. This essay intends to show firstly, the reasons behind both writers theories; secondly, the different political systems resulting from these; thirdly, the way of life under each system. Both writers' style of writing suggests that it is written for males, the name of Machiavellis book alone is an example of this. It is therefore very difficult to write this essay with females in mind, where possible, an impersonal pronoun has been used but unfortunately this is not always possible.

With each persons' reading of the two authors, different visualisations of how each system

will present themselves occurs. However in order for this essay to be of any relevance, some central themes in each writer must be evident. It therefore makes common sense in concentrating on generalisations of hypothetical States rather than attempting to relate each writer to an existing one.

Machiavelli has been described by some as a realist. The main objective for Machiavelli is success, or more poignantly defined as, success for the ruler of a country. His idea is a handbook for all monarchs in how to gain, maintain and increase ones' own power and glory in principalities, either existing, new or conquered. Machiavelli does not deny Christian values such as compassion, generosity or forgiveness but he believes that these traits, when followed by the ruler will lead to exploitation by the citizens and either the loss of power or a full scale civil war. Both of these could have been avoided by the ruler by being able to act more ruthlessly when (and only when) necessary. Machiavellis' concept of human nature is pessimistic, he believes that men are generally "ungrateful, fickle, feigners and dissemblers, avoiders of danger, eager for gain.". Machiavelli saw the Monarchs position as a balance between maximising power for themselves and giving away enough to the citizens for them to remain loyal. A train of thought that runs through Machiavellis work is that the Monarch is sovereign and should only give up any part of his power if he considers that the action will create more power, glory, loyalty or security.

Rousseaus' main concern was liberty, or the freedom of the individual citizen to act independently from other citizens. His concept of the General Will - where the citizens under the system vote for the laws that they believe necessary and so are incapable of breaking them because they also deem these laws morally correct - is central to this argument. Rousseau believed that the advancement of human society was corrupt as liberty had been eroded, therefore in a modern society, "Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains.". Generally, Rousseau can be said to be an optimist or even a romanticist about human nature, his idea of the state of nature is pictured as care-free, with simple desires and little else.

Machiavellis' system is a framework which can adjust to each idea, apart from the assumption of a monarchy not much else is described. References tend to be actions which are necessary for Machiavelli. For example, in a mixed principality recently conquered Machiavelli advises two courses of action, firstly to slaughter the existing ruling families which removes the threat of them attempting to regain power, secondly to not make any changes to the existing laws or impose new taxes, in order not to further aggravate the conquered citizens. This second course of action shows Machiavellis pragmatic approach not to write about what should be, but rather how the ruler should best adapt to a given situation.

Machiavellis' concern was the ruler keeping power. He states a number of times in 'The Prince' that the two main attributes needed to hold on to power are a good army and good laws. Quentin Skinner points out that "laws' here should probably not be understood in a narrow sense: rather Machiavelli had in mind 'laws' and 'customs' (or unwritten laws); in short, the factors making for political and social cohesion and stability." As long as these two goals are adhered to, the rest is not as difficult. Contrary to many peoples beliefs, Machiavelli did not believe merely in a tyrannical government. He argues for the ruler to be rational and to an extent, moral. When necessary, such as with law-breakers or conspirators, the punishment must be severe, uncompromising and swift, "men should either be caressed or crushed; because they can avenge slight injuries, but not those that are very severe. Hence, any injury done to a man must be such that there is no need to fear his revenge". It is quite feasible under Machiavelli for the Monarch to be well disposed to their subjects, as long as it is understood that any kind of subversive action will be dealt with, "there are two ways of contending: one by using laws, the other, force. The first is appropriate for men, the second for animals; but because the former is often ineffective, one must have the recourse for the latter".

The bulk of Rousseaus argument for his political system can be found in 'The Social Contract'. Firstly, a group of people meeting Rousseaus prerequisites come together and form a tacit contract between them in the form of giving up every right they have to all the others, by doing this, no one can have any right over another but they collectively still have all the same rights only now "more power to preserve what he has". If anyone alters this contract, it becomes null and void. This group of people are now the People, the people have a common ego, life and will, they are an united, artificial body. All members of the People are voters in the assembly and share the sovereign power.

Rousseau sees the People as the sovereign, any act therefore has to be approved by the People, this Rousseau termed, 'The General Will'. Simply stated, it is where every member of the assembly meet and vote, the majority decision is the General Will. The People, because they do not have any private rights, do not make decisions based on personal advantages, but on public benefits. Because it is done for public benefit and not private gain, Rousseau considers it to be inherently good and free, those who voted in the minority should realise that because of the result, if their idea had been accepted it would not have been the General Will and therefore their freedom would have been reduced.

Rousseau accepts that the