Qualitative and Quantitative Research Approaches

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract

Sports fandom consists of cognitive and affective, as well as behavioural components. Existing sports fan research utilises either strong qualitative, or more often, strong quantitative methodologies. The strengths and weaknesses of each approach are outlined, developing the argument that the use of a single methodology often fails to explore all of these components. The use of a mixed methods approach is suggested to counteract this weakness and to enhance research into the sports fan.

Introduction

Although interest in the sports fan dates back to the beginning of this century, there is little empirical research on the subject (Burca, Brannick, & Meenaghan, 1996; Duke, 1991; Wann & Hamlet, 1995). Existing work has tended to favour quantitative methodologies (such as Branscombe & Wann, 1991, 1992; Hirt, Zillman, Erickson, & Kennedy, 1992; Iso-Ahola, 1980; Lee, 1980; Madrigal, 1995; Miller, 1976; Schurr, Wittig, Ruble, & Ellen, 1987; SNCCFR, 1996; 1997; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995; Wann & Branscombe, 1993). By contrast, qualitative research on the sports fan is extremely rare (such as Armstrong, 1998; Dunning, Murphy, Williams, 1987; King, 1997; Marsh, Rosser, & Harre, 1978). Although some investigations do show elements of combining qualitative and quantitative methods, few, if any, existing studies of the sports fan adopt the mixed methods approach as an explicit research strategy. This paper argues that such an approach is a worthwhile means for gaining a fuller understanding of the sports fan.

The choice of research design must be appropriate to the subject under investigation (Patton, 1987). Thus, the nature of sports fandom will have implications for the choice of suitable methodology. Those authors who define sports fandom (Branscombe & Wann, 1992; Guttman, 1986; Pooley, 1978) all stress that cognitive and affective, as well as behavioural components are significant. These dimensions are also noted by other authors ( Lee & Zeiss, 1980; Madrigal 1995; Miller, 1976), and summarised by Pooley (1978, p. 14), who states that

whereas a spectator of sport will observe a spectacle and forget it very quickly, the fan continues his interest until the intensity of feeling toward the team becomes so great that parts of every day are devoted to either his team or in some instances, to the broad realm of the sport itself.

It seems reasonable to suggest, therefore, that fandom comprises more than simply attending and observing a sporting event. Rather, being a fan "represents an association from which the individual derives considerable emotional and value significance" (Madrigal, 1995, pp. 209-210). This acknowledgement that sports fandom consists of more than overt behaviour has important implications for the choice of research methodology.

Quantitative Research and the Sports Fan

Quantitative research designs are characterised by the assumption that human behaviour can be explained by what may be termed "social facts", which can be investigated by methodologies that utilise "the deductive logic of the natural sciences" (Horna, 1994, p. 121). Quantitative investigations look for "distinguishing characteristics, elemental properties and empirical boundaries" (p. 121) and tend to measure "how much", or "how often" (Nau, 1995). They are appropriate to examine the behavioural component of sports fandom, such as attendance at games.

A quantitative research design allows flexibility in the treatment of data, in terms of comparative analyses, statistical analyses, and repeatability of data collection in order to verify reliability. The advantages of a quantitative approach are demonstrated by the research carried out into the English "Premier League" football fan (SNCCFR, 1996, 1997). This survey- based study produced broad data across a large fan population at Premier League clubs, allowing the behavioural patterns of the English football fan to be ascertained. The quantitative design permitted a simple comparative analysis between clubs, it also enabled longitudinal data to be collected in consecutive seasons, in order to enhance reliability. These surveys clearly illustrate the composition of the crowd, their overt behaviour, and their scalable

attitudes towards pre-determined items. Although the approach is obviously useful in determining the extent of such behaviour or attitudes, the methodology adopted, however, fails to provide any explanation or analysis beyond the descriptive level.

Although the Premier League surveys do not utilise any form of statistical analysis beyond the parametric measures of frequency counts and means, Jayaratne (1993) introduces a further advantage of a quantitative research design, noting that as well as producing what may be considered more objective data, it may also allow more objective analysis. Thus, other quantitative research into the sports fan (Branscombe & Wann, 1991; 1992; Madrigal, 1995; Murrell & Dietz, 1992) demonstrates a strong emphasis upon significance testing, with most existing research examining the relationship between level of fandom and aspects of fan behaviour, such as level of identification with a team and patterns of attendance (Schurr, et al., 1987), fan satisfaction (Madrigal, 1995), or evaluation of team performance (Wann & Dolan, 1994). Many of the scales used within these studies are also tested for validity and reliability, thus claiming further "scientific" credibility, such as the use of the Sport Spectator Identification Scale (Wann & Branscombe, 1993).

Thus, it can be seen that quantitative methodologies do have strengths for sports fan research. These may be summarised as follows:

Quantitative methodologies are appropriate to measure overt behaviour.

They are also strong in measuring descriptive aspects, such as the composition of the sports crowd.

Quantitative methodologies allow comparison and replication.

Reliability and validity may be determined more objectively than qualitative techniques.

These strengths however, are not the sole prerogative of quantitative designs. Indeed, many of the arguments for the use of quantitative research, especially in an academic climate where resources are limited, have pragmatic origins in terms of allowing large scale data collection and analysis at reasonable cost and effort, as