Shamanism as Psychopatholgy

The religious practices of people living in tribal cultures have often intrigued anthropologists as well as generating important questions relating to cross-cultural understanding. In particular, shamanism is a practice which has been viewed from various perspectives, and in some cases, has been regarded as an expression of mental illness. Shamanism is an extraordinarily far-ranging practice, occurring in various regions of the world. The role of the shaman is to act as an intermediary between different planes of being among cultures which perceive nature to be alive with gods and spirits, part of the interconnected cosmos. The altered states of consciousness often experienced by shamans, as well as their association with illness, are factors which have contributed to the view of shamanism as an expression of psychopathology. However, this view of shamanism appears to have arisen from ethnocentric view points as well as a misunderstanding of shamanic practices and thus does not appear to be a valid analysis. Evidence now exists which demonstrates the beneficial role of shamans within their cultural groups. Rather than sufferers of mental illness, shamans can be viewed as playing an important role in maintaining a balance among their societies. This essay will firstly define shamanism, and secondly, discuss the reasons why shamanism has been viewed as an expression of psychopathology. Thirdly it will provide reasons as to why shamans may be viewed as a beneficial part of the societies in which they live.

The behaviours associated with shamanistic practices have attributed to the view of shamanism as an expression of psychopathology. Jolly (2005:127), defines shamans as Ð''religious functionaries who draw on the powers in the natural world, including the power of animals, and who mediate, usually in an altered state of consciousness, between the world of the living and that of the spirits Ð'- including the spirits of the dead'. It is a practice involving an intriguing collection of phenomena Ð''including various trance states, magical flight, and spirit possession' (Bodley 2005:152). The shaman is expected to Ð''exhibit control of the supernatural powers which interfere with human life' which includes Ð''procuring game, driving away evil spirits, obtaining good weather, and curing the sick' (Drury 1996:13). Bodley (2005:152) notes that anthropologists have had trouble being objective in relation to shamans, due to their religious and medical practices which differ greatly from those generally found in the west. Consequently, this misunderstanding has led some anthropologists to view shamanism as an expression of psychopathology, the manifestation of a mental or behavioural disorder. As noted by Lucas and Barrett (1995:312) Ð''[t]he shaman has been depicted as sexually inverted, neurotic, epileptic, psychotic, and schizophrenic'. However, a greater understanding of shamanic practices reveals that these are not accurate representations.

Similarities exist between characteristics of shamanism and certain mental disorders, which have supported the view of shamanism as an expression of psychopathology. This view was most forcibly put forward by Julian Silverman, who emphasised the comparable aspects between shamans and acute schizophrenics (Bodley 2005:153; Drury 1996:12; Lucas & Barrett 1995:310). Silverman (cited in Lucas & Barrett 1995:311) proposes schizophrenics and shamans both experience Ð''abnormal perception and thinking, profound emotional upheaval, and bizarre forms of behaviour'. According to Hooley, Woodberry and Ferriter (2005:205) characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia include Ð''hallucinations, delusions, and disorganised speech and behaviour'. As such, some correlations may appear evident between the two; however, while shamans may exhibit similar characteristics to schizophrenics, some basic differences remain. Noll (cited in Bodley 2005:154) points out that by associating shamanism with schizophrenia, this implies a shaman experiences symptoms such as Ð''out-of-control hallucinations and other paranoid delusions' which have negative connotations, but are not in fact characteristic of shamanism. Furthermore, the association of shamanism with schizophrenia has contributed to negative views of tribal societies. As noted by Lucas and Barrett (1995:311), Ð''through the homogeneity of shamanism and schizophrenia, primitive society itself becomes a psychotic version of reality, the external display of a sick mind'. Noll (cited in Bodley 2005:154) distinguishes between the maladaptive schizophrenic altered state of consciousness, and that of the shamanic state of consciousness which the shaman can enter virtually at will, remaining aware, seeing visions and using them Ð''for socially beneficial purposes', and then freely returning to normal consciousness. While shamans and schizophrenics share the ability to move in and out of different mental states, according to Drury (1996:12), the shaman Ð''has gradually learned how to integrate the different realms of consciousness, thereby bringing matters firmly under control'. Thus, the comparison between shamanism and schizophrenia does not take account of the aspect of control a shaman displays over his or her state of consciousness and as such does not appear to be a valid interpretation.

While similarities between shamanism and schizophrenia have attributed to the view of shamanism as an expression of psychopathology, another reason involves the association of shamanism with illness in general. In some cases, mental illness and other forms of physical illness create important aspects in the initiation process of a shaman, and in many cultures, shamans experience illness in their youth before initiation (Drury 1996; Huang & Sumrongthong 2004; Joshi 2004; Leggatt 1997). The vocation of shamanism may be inherited or sought out through teaching from an established shaman, however, in many cases the shaman's vocation is Ð''revealed through an illness or epileptoid attack' (Eliade cited in Drury 1996:12). Drury (1996:11) suggests that during their youth, shamans are often of Ð''a nervous disposition', and may seem Ð''strangely withdrawn from society'. As such, various researchers have viewed these characteristics as evidence of psychopathology. According to Eliade (cited in Leggatt 1997:1), many studies have Ð''enumerated the large number of cultures in which the shaman is always epileptic, hysteroid (resembling hysteria), or otherwise sickly' concluding that there is nothing more to shamanism than Ð''tragic mental illness'. Moreover, seeing that the shaman plays an