Shuttle-Mir Program

The Shuttle-Mir Program was a collaborative space program between Russia and the United States, which involved American Space Shuttles visiting the Russian space station Mir, Russian cosmonauts flying on the shuttle and American astronauts engaging in long-duration expeditions aboard Mir.

The program, sometimes called 'Phase One', was intended to allow the United States to learn from Russian experience into long-duration spaceflight and to foster a spirit of cooperation between the two nations and their respective space agencies, NASA and RKA, in preparation for further cooperative space ventures, specifically, 'Phase Two' of the joint project, the construction of the International Space Station. Announced in 1993 with the first mission occurring in 1994, the program continued until its scheduled completion in 1998, and consisted of eleven shuttle missions, a joint Soyuz flight and almost 1000 days in space for American astronauts over seven expeditions.

During the four-year program, many 'firsts' in spaceflight were obtained by the two nations, including the first American astronaut to launch aboard a Soyuz spacecraft, the largest spacecraft ever flown at that time in history, and the first American spacewalk using a Russian Orlan spacesuit.

The program was, however, marred by various concerns, notably the safety of Mir following a fire and collision on board the station, financial issues with the cash-strapped Russian Space Program and worries from astronauts about the attitudes of the program administrators. Nevertheless, a large amount of science, expertise in space station construction and knowledge in working in a cooperative space venture was gained from the combined operations, allowing the construction of the ISS to proceed much more smoothly than otherwise possible.

Background

In June 1992, American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to join hands in space exploration by signing the "Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes". The agreement called for the setting up a short, joint space program, during which one US astronaut would board the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts would board a Space Shuttle. In September 1993, however, American Vice-president Al Gore and Russian prime minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, later to be called the International Space Station, or ISS. They also agreed that, in preparation for this new project, America would be largely involved in the Mir program in the years ahead, under the code name 'Phase One' (the construction of the ISS being 'Phase Two').[1]

During the course of the program, eleven Space Shuttle missions flew to the station, carrying out crew exchanges, flying a docking module and a new set of solar arrays to Mir and conducting a myriad of scientific experiments aboard the space station. The program also saw the launch of two new modules, Spektr and Priroda, to Mir, which were used by American astronauts as living quarters and laboratories to conduct the majority of their science aboard the station. These missions allowed NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to learn a great deal about how best to work with international partners in space and how to minimise the risks associated with assembling a large space station -- the ISS -- in orbit.[2][3]

In addition to these scientific advances, the program also served as a political ruse on the part of the American government, providing diplomatic channel for NASA to take part in the funding of the cripplingly under-funded Russian space program. This in turn allowed the newly-fledged Russian government to keep Mir operating, in addition to the space program as a whole (a purpose which continues into Phase Two), ensuring the Russian government remained (and remains) friendly towards the United States.[4][5]

Increments

In addition to the flights of the Shuttle to Mir, Phase One also featured seven 'Increments' aboard the station, long-duration flights aboard Mir by American astronauts. The seven astronauts who took part in the Increments, Norman Thagard, Shannon Lucid, John Blaha, Jerry Linenger, Michael Foale, David Wolf and Andrew Thomas, were each flown in turn to Star City, Russia, to undergo training in various aspects of the operation of Mir and the Soyuz spacecraft used for transport to and from the Station. The astronauts also received practice in carrying out spacewalks outside Mir and lessons in the Russian language, which would be used throughout their missions to talk with the other cosmonauts aboard the station and Mission Control in Russia, the TsUP.

During their expeditions aboard Mir, the astronauts carried out various experiments, including growth of crops and crystals, and took hundreds of photographs of the Earth spinning serenely beneath them. They also assisted in the maintenance and repair of the ageing station, following various incidents with fires,