Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud

The psychology of personality begins with the assumption that differences in behavior are the results of underlying differences in personality (Mischel, Shoda, & Smith, 2004). Although many different theories of personality exist, perhaps the most comprehensive was developed by Sigmund Freud, founder of the psychoanalytic theory. His theories stirred up the world of psychology by suggesting that human nature was not a rational state of mind. The theories of Freud have been both admired and criticized by colleagues. This document will provide a brief overview of the life, theories, and studies of Sigmund Freud as well as assessments used in identifying personality disorders.

Born on May 6, 1856, Sigismund Schlomo Freud was the son of a Moravian wool merchant, Jacob Freud who was married to a much younger woman, Amalia. During the nineteenth century, early death among women was common from disease or childbirth. Jacob was 20 years older than his third wife Amalia and had grown children of his own. Sigmund was born into a poor Jewish family who sought greater fortune. When Sigmund was four, his family moved from Moravia to Vienna in hopes of finding a better life. Despite the deep identification with Vienna, Sigmund Freud always cherished the Moravian countryside (Ferris, 1997).

After the Freud family moved to Vienna, five more children were born into the Freud family. Sigmund, however, was still recognized as the "golden boy" by his mother's adoration. He was given his own room, which was justified by his future destiny of greatness. Bothersome activities by his siblings were dismissed to accommodate Sigmund's study habits. Sigmund would eat in his room so that he could read and study with his schoolmates or "study mates." He was a demanding young individual but he was also brilliant, conscientious, and ambitious (Ferris, 1997).

During an early childhood experience, Sigmund's father scolded him and stated that he would never amount to anything. This accusation haunted Sigmund and was consistently revisited in his dreams but to overcome this setback, he would count his accomplishments as though to prove his father wrong. Initially at 17, Freud began medical school at the University of Vienna and specialized in neurology and anatomy. After he received his medical degree, he worked in the wards of the Vienna General Hospital specializing in clinical neurology studying under Theodor Meynert (Ferris, 1997).

Freud then took a six month fellowship at Salpкtriиre Hospital in Paris. This hospital was an asylum for poor women with hysteria, a mental disorder that was treated by the famous Jean Martin Charcot, a neurologist. When Freud arrived, the Salpкtriиre had become one of the most prestigious training centers in Europe. The behavior and illnesses of the mentally disturbed could be studied and observed at this facility, and when patients died, autopsies were performed searching for abnormalities explaining these occurrences. During this time, a wide array of disorders had been found to be caused by hysteria. Further studies by Charcot led to the discovery that patients could be hypnotized, and while in a trance, would not suffer from hysterical symptoms. This work by Charcot captured Freud's interest. He theorized that hysteria was not a biological disease, but rather an illness in some part of the mind (Ferris, 1997).

After his work at the Salpкtriиre, Freud returned to Vienna to establish his own neurological practice and to marry Martha Bernays. The practice that Freud established in Vienna was initially focused on hysteria and treating them under hypnosis. While hypnotized, patients were coerced into speaking about their past. From his studies, Freud coauthored the book Studies of Hysteria with Josef Breuer. This book was a description of Breuer's patient, known as "Anna O.", but was never treated by Freud himself. In 1939, Freud died of throat cancer in London (Ferris, 1997).

In the early 20th century, Sigmund Freud established a theory that created an uproar in the neo-Victorian world. During this period, individuals believed that the behaviors of humans were under a conscious and rational control. However, Freud thought that the human mind was driven by uncontrollable urges of sexuality and aggression. Through his studies of human hysteria, Freud found that patients did not have any biological illness or physical disease as a cause of their abnormal behavior. He then began to formulate a theory of the mind and dividing it into three sections: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. People are instantly aware of their conscious thoughts. Preconscious thoughts are those that are easily invoked by subliminal attributes, such as remembering a memory that was brought about by background music during the experience. The unconscious mental thoughts are those that individuals cannot voluntarily summon and consist of those uncontrollable impulses (Mischel, Shoda, & Smith, 2004).

Freud believed that people become ill with neurotic illnesses such as hysteria and obsessive-compulsive disorder because they are unaware of the material that lays deep in their unconscious minds. These forgotten conflicts demand attention and express themselves as symptoms such as loss of speech, fear of elevators, frequent hand-washing, or paralysis of a body part. Freud believed that a person gets better only when they become aware of the meaning of these symptoms in relation to the underlying conflict. (Moser, 2006, p 2)

To prove Freud's theory of the unconscious mind, he had to provide methods that proved his abstract ideas and beliefs. The first measurement of the unconscious mind was through dreams. Freud defined a dream as a means of attaining the desired wishes that would never occur under the conscious state of mind. Professionals explain dreams by interpreting specific symbols that exist in them as described by the patient. Not only did Freud interpret dreams to help uncover unconscious material, he also used a method known as free association. Free association allows patients to say anything that comes to mind, even irrational thoughts (Mischel, Shoda, & Smith, 2004). Freud named this treatment technique psychoanalysis or the "talking cure". Through these procedures, patients realized that their symptoms were generated from previous experiences or conflicts. They are then able to release the feelings associated with those experiences (Moser, 2006).

To better understand the unconscious mind, Freud conceptualized a structural theory. This consisted of three mental groups: id, ego, and superego. The following table breaks down the structural relationship to that of the consciousness level of the mind.

Structure Consciousness Role